TRAINING MODULE ON PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Sponsored by Department of Personnel & Training Government of India & U.N.D.P Prepared by Dr.Chandra Prasad Sreedhar & Mr.Oommen Mathew Institute of Management in Government Thiruvananthapuram FOREWORD The influence of human personality upon the functional efficiency of an organization and its personnel has been widely recognized. The personality can also be modified to a certain extent. Accordingly, recent years have seen a variety of efforts by professionals in various fields to design courses that will help develop certain positive trends in personality. The objective of such courses is to remove or screen out those barriers or obstructions that stand in the way of the expression of individual personality, through a process of training. 2. The present module on personality development is specifically design to cater to the demands of training courses organized for senior officers in order to improve functional efficiency. The module covers 9 areas. It was validated in two stages, and contains the distilled wisdom of this consultative process. When effectively operationalised, the module should ensure that participants are given adequate opportunity to gain skills that will help improve their functional efficiency. 3. This project was undertaken by the Institute of Management in Government (IMG) at the behest of the Department of Personnel and Training (DoPT), Government in India. RUDHRA GANGADHARAN IAS DIRECTOR INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT IN GOVERNMENT Thiruvananthapuram 28th May 2003 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The successful completion of this module on Personality Development was achieved through the wholehearted, sincere and committed support of a number of dignitaries whom I take this opportunity to acknowledge. First of all let me express my deep sense of gratitude to Shri.Agarwal, Joint Secretary, Department of Personnel and Training Government of India for entrusting me with the task of preparing this module and I hope that the work has come upto his expectation level and demand. But for his encouragement, this work could not have materialized. Next I wholeheartedly acknowledge Shri. Rudhra Gangadharan, Principal Secretary and Director, IMG for his valuable suggestions, support and timely help all of which have gone a long way in helping me to complete the work within the stipulated time. I am thankful to Shri.Venkatesan, Joint Director, DoPT for all the valuable help rendered by him. My thanks are also due to Dr.Venkatapathy Director School of Management Studies, Bharathiar University, Dr.Mathew Manimalayil, Professor, IIM, Bangalore and Dr.Ramachandran Nair, Director, IMK Kerala University who have wholeheartedly conducted the evaluation of the module and offered meaningful suggestions. Their contributions have greatly helped me in perfecting the module. I also wish to acknowledge the sincere co-operation of the experts in the field of academic and administration who have attended the validation workshop and offered valuable suggestions which were appropriately incorporated in the module. Finally I wish to acknowledge the sincere suggestions and encouragement of my colleagues and well wishers. Dr.Chandra Prasad Sreedhar CONTENTS Page Number 1. Package of Personality Development 1 2. Leadership 4 3. Interpersonal Relations 7 4. Communication in organizations 9 5. Stress Management 13 6. Group Dynamics and Team Building 15 7. Conflict Management 18 8. Performance Appraisal 21 9. Time Management 24 10. Motivation 27 Package of Personality Development Aim The training module is aimed at the promotion of the strategies for the personality development of the participants. The rationale behind this endeavor is the recognition of the multifaceted influence of the personality of the employees upon organisational effectiveness. Objectives The objective of the training programme is bring about personality development with regard to the different behavioural dimensions that have far reaching significance in the direction of organisational effectiveness. Methodology Lecture-cum-discussion Group Discussion Management Games Case Studies Participants The participants will consists of officers in the A,B and C category. DURATION : 5 days Course content Unit 1 Leadership Introduction to Leadership, Leadership Power, Leadership Styles, Leadership in Administration. Unit 2 Interpersonal Introduction to Interpersonal Relations, Analysis Relations of different ego states, Analysis of Transactions, Analysis of Strokes, Analysis of Life position Unit 3 Communication Introduction to Communication, Flow of Communication, Listening, Barriers of Communication, How to overcome barriers of communication. Unit 4 Stress Introduction to Stress, Causes of Stress, Impact Management Stress, Managing Stress Unit 5 Group Dynamics Importance of groups in organization, and Team Interactions in group, Group Building Decision Taking, Team Building, Interaction with the Team, How to build a good team? Unit 6 Conflict Introduction to Conflict, Causes of Conflict, Management Managing Conflict Unit 7 Performance Introduction to Performance Appraisal, Appraisal Vertical Appraisal, Horizontal Appraisal, 360º Performance Appraisal, Methods of improving Techniques of Performance Appraisal. Unit 8 Time Time as a Resource, Identify Important Time Management Wasters, Individual Time Management Styles, Techniques for better Time Management. Unit 9 Motivation Introduction to Motivation, Relevance and types of Motivation, Motivating the subordinates, Analysis of Motivation Day-wise Breakup Session I Registration, Familiarisation and Inauguration and Introduction to the Course Session II Problem identification, report presentation and discussion Session III Introduction to Leadership Day 1 Session IV Leadership Styles Session I Interpersonal Relations Session II Boss-Subordinate Relations Session III Introduction to Communication Day 2 Session IV Barriers of Communication Session I Introduction to Stress and Causes of Stress Session II Impact of Stress and Managing Stress Session III Group Dynamics Day 3 Session IV Team Building Session I Introduction to Conflict Session II Managing Conflict Day 4 Session III Introduction to Performance Appraisal Session IV Designing a Performance Appraisal System Session I Time Management Session II Managing time meaningfully Session III Motivation Day 5 Session IV Action Plan, Evaluation and Valediction Day One (Forenoon) Registration, Familiarisation and Inauguration. (45 minutes) Introduction to the course (45 minutes) This session involves a detailed discussion pertaining to the aims and objectives of the course in general. The introduction of the total content areas is also attempted in this session. Problem Identification (45 minutes) Suggested methodology – Group discussion. During this session the participants will be divided into specific number of groups and each group is expected to discuss the problems that they are facing in their organisation. Each group is to have a leader who is to present a consolidated report of the problems faced by the members of his group. Report Presentation and discussion (45 minutes) After the presentation of the reports by each of the leaders, in order to fulfil the requirement of this session in Problem Identification, the course director will be preparing a detailed list of all the problems cited. The list of problems will then be circulated to all the trainers who are handling the various sessions. Day One (Afternoon) - Leadership Objectives To impart knowledge, sharpen skills and orient attitudes of participants so that they are capable of performing better in their roles as leaders based on the situation. Content Leadership – importance and significance – the concept – leader vs. manager – Are all leaders managers? - Are all managers leaders? – categories of leaders : entrepreneurial – administrative – political. Leadership styles : autocratic (authoritarian and paternalistic) – democratic – laizzes faire. Leadership style – the concept of situational leadership – identification of individual leadership styles and construction of personal leadership style profiles. Methodology Suggested (1) Lecture (2) Games (3) Group Discussion (4) Case Studies Time Schedule 1. Lecture cum discussion on leadership concepts – 45 minutes 2. Exercise of tower building - 60 minutes and discussion 3. TP Leadership style questionnaire & Construction of Personal Leadership style profiles - 30 minutes 4. Experience sharing - 45 minutes ----------------------- Total - 180 minutes Instructions to Trainers - During the initial discussion importance and primacy of leadership should be highlighted. The concept of leader and manager should compared and contrasted. It should be made clear that while categorization of leadership is based on what leaders do or what they are capable of doing best, identification of leadership styles is based on how leaders perform the tasks of: (1) making decisions (2) implementing decisions - The tower building exercise, if properly conducted, can be a very powerful tool to bring out participants’ leadership styles and even to compare their relative merits and demerits. Two participants should be requested to volunteer to take up the roles of leader and follower. They should be requested to come to the front and shown the blocks with which they have to build a tower. They should also be told that the “follower” will be blind folded and that she/he will be allowed to use only one hand and will have to build the tower based on the leader’s instructions. It should also be told that they should try to build as high a tower as possible. Before announcement of work, they should be asked to give their estimate of the height of the tower they are going to build in terms of number of blocks. These should be recorded. Care should be taken to note even minute details such as whether the estimates given are based on mutual consultation or are individual opinions. After the briefing, the follower should be blindfolded and made to stand on one side of the table on which the blocks are kept and the leader should be instructed to stand on the opposite side. Then they should proceed to construct the tower. Even minute aspects of the behaviour of the leader and follower should be observed and recorded, such as: (1) leader’s behaviour at the beginning especially goal setting (2) whether the leader tries to encourage, control and motivate the follower. (3) Does the leader provide feedback to the follower? If yes, is it sufficient. (4) How do they respond/react in case the tower collapses during the construction. (5) Leaders behaviour at Project completion. After the team completes the tower construction there should be a guided discussion on all aspects of the teams performance viz., goal setting, leadership styles, communication, empathy etc. - The TP Leadership Questionnaire should be administered after the exercise of tower building. Required instructions are given on the Questionnaire, Score Sheet and Leadership style, Profile Sheet. Based on the leadership style of individual participants, discussions as to whether any change in their styles is required etc. can be made. Day Two (Forenoon) - Interpersonal Relations (Transactional Analysis) Objectives To create an awareness in the participants with regard to the different aspects of interpersonal relations based on the ideas envisaged in Transactional Analysis and their relative significance in the context of the functional effectiveness of organisations. Contents Introduction Analysis of different ego states Analysis of Transactions Analysis of Strokes Analysis of Life position Methodology 1. Lecture Method 2. Questionnaire method Time Schedule 15 minutes Introduction 45 minutes Analysis of different ego states 30 minutes Administor the questionnaire and analysis different ego states 30 minutes Analysis of Transactions 30 minutes Analysis of Strokes 30 minutes Analysis of Life position Instruction to Trainers 1. Introduction In this section, participants are to be provided with theoretical knowledge with regard to nature, types and outcomes of various interpersonal relationships in relation with Transactional Analysis. 2. Analysis of Ego States In this session Ego States are to be analysed with the help of concrete examples in the organisational set up. This session involves the use of a lecture-cumdiscussion method. After the analysis of ego status the questionnaire for identifying the same may be administered to the participants and their responses scored in accordance with the scoring schedule provided. The scores are then analysed and interpreted in order to provide the participants informations regarding this relative positions with regard to different ego states. 3. Analysis of Transactions The participants should be made aware of the different types of transactions such as complementary, crossed and ulterior transactions and are then encouraged to identify their predominant style of transaction. Then the merits and demerits of the different styls are evaluated and the need, scope and method of changing the styles as and when required is also discussed. 4. Analysis of Strokes Strokes can be considered in the most simple way as forms of rewards (appreciations) and punishments. They can be either positive or negative and all people need them for being and also for performing. After providing the awareness regarding the different stroking patterns to the participants, they are asked to make an evaluation of their stroking patterns and identify their merits and demerits and also to suggest changes, if any, required in stroking patterns to enhance interpersonal relationships. 5. Analysis of Life Positions As per the concepts involved in Transactional Analysis, four different types of Life positions have been identified. They are: 1. I am OK You are OK 2. I am not OK You are not OK 3. I am OK You are not OK 4. I am not OK You are OK The trainer has to provide evaluative information regarding these life positions to the participants and they should be encouraged to identify their life positions and understand merits and demerits. The participants are also made to come out with suggestions for changing their life positions in accordance with the appropriation of the situations in order to enhance interpersonal contracts. Day Two (Afternoon) - Communication In Organisations Objectives To empower participants to be better communicators by providing them with relevant inputs and also sharpening their skills. Contents Introduction to Communication – Communication as a process – Communication as a concept – Importance of Communication – Types of Communication – Effective Communication - The ABCs of Communication – Model for Communication process – Communication categories – Barriers to effective Communication. Methodology The methodology shall consist of Lecture, exercises, games, inventories and case studies. Time Schedule 1. Introduction and clarification of concepts - 20 minutes (lecturette) 2. Exercise – Please follow the Instructions - 10 minutes 3. Barriers to Effective Communication - 60 minutes (story telling exercise and Lecturette) 4. Exercise – Separate Fact from Inference - 10 minutes 5. Questionnaire on Listening - 10 minutes 6. Questionnaire on Speaking - 10 minutes 7. Drawing exercise - 30 minutes 8. Improving Communication - 30 minutes ------------------------ Total - 180 minutes Instructions to Trainers (i) Read the write up, “Communication in Organizations” thoroughly. The sequence of topics suggested for the session closely follows the text. (ii) An appropriate ice breaker should be used at the beginning of the session. (iii) Whenever OHP is used, take care not to turn back and look at the screen. The trainer should always face the audience. If something is to be pointed, it can be done on the transparency, which will also get projected. (iv) The following modus operandi is suggested for the story telling exercise: (a) request five volunteers to wait outside the hall at a distance from where they cannot hear what somebody speaks in the class. (b) allot them numbers 1-5 and tell them that they will have to return to class in this order when called (c) request anyone in the hall to share an interesting incident in her/his life, which other participants do not know. (d) After the narration is over, request volunteer No.1 to return to the class. She/he may be given a chair right in the front. (e) Request any member in the audience to come forward and repeat the narration she/he heard. Volunteer No.1 should be asked to listen carefully to the narration and others should be instructed not to offer explanations, clarifications etc. (f) After this step is over, volunteer No.2 should be brought to the class and Volunteer No.1 should tell her/him what he heard. (g) This process has to be continued. Volunteer No.2 should repeat what she/he heard to Volunteer No.3 and Volunteer No.3 has to do the same with Volunteer No.4. (h) Volunteer No.4 should be asked to go to Volunteer No.5 who is waiting outside and tell her/him what she/he heard. (i) After step (h) Volunteer Nos.4 and 5 should return to the class. Volunteer No.4 should be requested to occupy a seat and No.5 should be asked to repeat what she/he heard to the group. (j) The narrations by Volunteer No.5 and that of the original storyteller can be compared to get some idea of the transmission alterations. (k) This exercise can be very interesting and audience usually burst out laughing during each narration. (l) It will be interesting to record the original story and the narration of the Volunteer No.5 for obvious reasons. (v) After the exercise “Separate Facts from Inference”, the trainer should point out that Separating Facts from Inferences is basically a communication skill irrespective of the field of applications. Number of correct responses by participants may also be checked (only statement No.3 is a fact). Differences in individual and group effectiveness can also be observed. (vi) For Questionnaires on Listening and Speaking, respondents should be asked to give ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ answers to each Question, based on how they would behave during majority of situations. They have to answer questions based on how they would behave and not how they should behave. Most participants will know the ideal answers and so the questionnaires will give them some idea about themselves as listeners and speakers. If necessary, the trainer can give some explanations. (vii) The modus operandi to conduct the drawing exercise will be as follows: The participants may be divided in to two equal groups (say No. Ones and No. Twos) and one group can be asked to wait outside the hall. To each participant inside the hall a piece of paper (½ of an A4 size sheet) should be given and they should be requested to write their names on top left. The following 2 figures should be projected on the screen and each participant should copy one of the figures on their sheets of paper reasonably big enough, with the sketch pens that will be supplied to them. Then they should be given the instruction sheet – sample attached – which will be of A4 size. The group of No. Ones who are given the role of senders should be given the task of making one from the other group (they will be receivers) draw the same diagram that No. Ones have drawn initially on the right hand side of the instruction sheet, by giving written instructions. They cannot give any pictorial directives. After the Senders’ finish writing down instructions their initial drawings should be collected and kept away. The pictures should no longer be projected on the screen. then the group, which has been waiting outside the hall, should be asked to come in. The senders should hand over the instruction sheets to the receivers. The sender should not be allowed to orally communicate with the receivers. But they should be encouraged to watch how the receivers proceed. Once the receivers have completed ‘their’ drawings the instruction sheets should be collected back and each drawing should be paired with its “original”. Each set should be shown to the entire group with trainers comments whenever appropriate. Day Three (Forenoon) - Stress Management Objectives The principal objectives of this unit are to familiarize the participants with the knowledge regarding the various causes of stress, type of stresses and above all the various stress management strategies. Content Introduction to Stress Management - Causes of Stress - Impact of Stress - Managing Stress Methods Lecture method Group discussion Relaxation Techniques (Demonstration) Time Schedule 30 minutes - Introduction 45 minutes - Causes of Stress 45 minutes - Impact of Stress 45 minutes - Managing Stress 15 minutes - Question and answers session Instruction to trainers Introduction of Stress Management This is the first topic of the units namely the Introduction. The following factors should be covered. 1) What is Stress? 2) Relevance of Stress 3) Difference between Distress and Eustress 4) General Adaptation Syndrome Causes of Stress The second part of the unit is aimed at analysing the Causes of Stress. This analysis will be through a group discussion. The whole class can be divided in to three groups. Each group has to analyse the causes along the following dimensions. 1. Organisational based stress 2. Family based stress 3. Social stresses After the discussion each group has to present a brief report and the presentation will be again followed by evaluations and discussion Impact of Stress This part of the unit is aimed at analysing the impact of stress up on individual and organisation. Some of the topics covered in this sections include areas such as: (1) Decision Making (Indecision, Delay, Error), (2) Performance (Absenteeism, Sabotage, Productivity) (3) Behavioural Area (Excessive smoking, Excessive drinking, Excessive in take off coffee or tea, Tremor, Drumming Fingers, Nail Bitting, Body Movements, Accidents (4) Psychological (Poor Memory, Poor Concentration, Sleep problems, Anxiety, Fear, Inability to relax, Depression, Suicide, Anger (5) Psychosomatic (Hyper tension, Peptic Ulcer, Irritable Bowel Syndrome, Tension head-ache, Bronchial Asthma, Diabetes, Neuro Dermatitis) Managing Stress This section involves a theoretical as well as a practical session. The theoretical session is aimed at increasing the awareness of participants regarding the influence of perceptual changes, personality, proper exercise, time management and the avoidance of long working hours in reducing the experience of stress. The practical session involves the imparting of training in Yoga, Mediation and Relaxation. It is essential that this session should be handled by an expert in these areas. Day Three (Afternoon) - Group Dynamics &Team Building Objectives To improve managerial capabilities of participants through team building and group dynamics. Contents Concept of team – concept of group - synergy – principles of intra-group dynamics relevant in the context of team building and management. How to build and manage effective teams. Method Lecutre method Games Group work Time Schedule 1. The exercise of broken squares - 45 minutes 2. Discussion - 30 minutes 3. Participants’ experience sharing - 30 minutes 4. Group work on developing an effective - 45 minutes strategy for team building and management 5. Presentation of reports - 30 minutes ------------------------ Total - 180 minutes Instructions to Trainers - A unique feature of the session on team building and management will be that a game/exercise will precede discussions - The exercise of broken squares will be conducted without announcing that it is part of a session on team building and management - To conduct the exercise of broken squares the group will be divided in to teams of five members. If the group is not exactly divisible by five, the remaining members should be given the role of observers. They should be briefed before commencement of the exercise and should be given a chance to present their observations after conclusion of the exercise. - Each team of participants (consisting of five members) should be directed to sit around a table. - Each team should be given a set of 5 covers each containing 3 pieces of thick paper. - The teams should be told that they have to complete a group task. The task involves making 5 squares, one in front of each person, using the pieces of paper which they get from the covers. - It should also be announced that though it will be possible to make 5 squares using the 15 pieces that each team gets, it may or may not be possible for an individual to make squares with the pieces she/he gets from her/his cover. - The following rules of the game should be stated very clearly: •= Participants should not express their desire to get pieces from others in any manner. •= Grabbing pieces from others is prohibited. •= Participant should not talk at all during the exercise •= Sub contracting is not allowed ie., one person should not make squares for others. •= No one is captain or leader ie., every member has the same status as a group member •= Participants should refrain from mutilating the pieces in any way. ie, bending, folding, tearing, cutting etc. of pieces are not allowed. •= However, participants are free to accept pieces from any or all of the four other members if they offer pieces on their own. •= Participants are free to offer their pieces to any or all of the other four members. •= It is not obligatory on the part of the participants to offer pieces in return to the ones they accept. •= Participants may not get pieces from others in exchange of the ones given. •= No participant should offer directions to others even non-verbally. •= It would be accepted that teams have completed their tasks, when they have five squares, one in front of each member. - The trainer (and other observers if any) should move around closely observing what happens in each team. - The exercise should be wound up either after all teams have completed the task or the lapse of 30 minutes after commencement of the task (excluding briefing) whichever is earlier. - The exercise should be followed by a discussion highlighting important aspects of intra-group dynamics significant in the conduct of team building and management. While analysing what happened during the game, care should be taken to cover the following. (i) States of mind undergone by participants when they took part in the game (ii) feelings and emotions experienced by participants during the game (iii) behaviours exhibited by participants during square building The following points should essentially be covered. (i) Failure to perceive the group-work as it should be. The moment a square is ready in front them, some participants may withdraw from the group-work assuming that they have nothing more to contribute. (ii) Playing the role of blockers to group. Eg. Participants making squares in the wrong way (ie., the use of prices to make a square in such a way which will prevent all five people making squares) (iii) Consumption of more than due share of organizational resources (making squares with more than three pieces and remaining unwilling to dismantle them even after observing that there are not sufficient pieces for everybody to make squares). (iv) Satisfaction with limited achievements (Participants making small squares with less than 3 pieces and remaining satisfied with them even after observing that others are making squares much bigger than theirs). (v) Collecting resources and idling them (same participants go on accepting pieces whenever someone offers, irrespective of whether they need it or not. They accumulate pieces which they cannot use and prevent others from using them) (vi) Hard but unproductive work (some participants go on collecting and distributing pieces. they even try to give directions to others breaking the rules of the same. Lot of activity takes place but squares are not being formed). (vii) Realising the need for communication (many participants develop a feeling “If I could communicate”) (viii) Realising the need for well defined leadership (while they are engaged in this group task where no one is selected/appointed/elected as a leader, many may develop a feeling, “If we had a leader”) Day Four (Forenoon) - Conflict Management Objectives To familiarise participants with the importance, influence and methods of managing conflict. Content Introduction to conflict – What is Conflict – Goal Conflict – Cognitive Conflict and Emotional Conflict (affection) . Levels of conflict –Intrapersonal Conflict – Interpersonal Conflict – Intragroup Conflict – Inter-group Conflict – Intra- Organisational Conflict. Managing Conflict and Conflict Resolution Styles. Method Lecture Method Games Group Discussion Time Schedule 45 minutes - Introduction 45 minutes - Games 45 minutes - Levels of Conflict 45 minutes - Managing Conflict Instruction to Trainers Introduction What is Conflict? Merits and demerits of Conflict? Is Conflict essential? Importance of Goal Conflict, Cognitive Conflict and Emotional Conflict – all those should be discussed. Levels of Conflict Awareness regarding levels of conflict can be provided to the participants through the analysis of the results of a Management Game. Games The participants are made to assemble in a room and the trainer will introduce a concept and ask the participants to mention this qualities or attributes of that concept. For eg., Leader – what are the qualities of leadership? The members are encouraged to mention their own ideas regarding the concept. After the identification of each quality all the participants are required to note it down. In this manner a list of qualities/attributes will be prepared. Then each participant is encouraged to rank the qualities on the basis of his/her evaluation. Thus all the participants at this stage will be having a ranked list of qualities or attributes of the concept introduced by the trainers. In the next stage the participants are divided into two groups. Then each group is asked to make a critical examination of the attributes and come out with a consensual ranking of the attributes. So at the end of this stage the two groups will each have a consensually ranked list of qualities or attributes. Then from each group 4 participants will be identified as Spokespersons and they will be seated in front, others seated at their back side. The Spokespersons alone will speak others can of course give ideas to their respective Spokespersons. Each group is then instructed to enforce their ranking upon the other group without any sign of yielding. This is meant to evoke heated arguments, discussions so on and so forth. Finally both the groups will remain sticking to their own list. In the next stage, the trainer will be selecting 4 other persons from each group and they will be instructed to settle the problem. The change in the attitude of this group can be clearly identified. In the total game, when the participants are making individual ranking of the listed attributes what they are experiencing is intrapersonal conflict. This is actually what is being experienced by an officer in an Organization while he is involved in the process of decision making. When the participants were in the two groups with their own ranked list they were in a state of intra group conflict. In the stage of heated discussion between the two groups, the participants were experiencing intergroup conflict. In all these situations, the existence interpersonal conflict can clearly be identified. After analysing the results of the games, the participants should be provided with maximum informations pertaining to the 4 different types of conflicts identified earlier. Intra-Organizational Conflict Four types of intra-organizational conflict exist: (1) vertical conflict (2) horizontal conflict (3) line-staff conflict and (4) role conflict. Participants should also be given informations regarding different aspects of these conflicts. Managing Conflict This part of the Unit is aimed at analysing the techniques of Managing Conflict. The whole class can be divided into 3 groups. Each group has to come out with suggestions regarding methods of resolving/overcoming conflicts. After the discussion, each group has to present a brief report and the presentation will be followed by evaluation and discussion. Day Four (Afternoon) - Performance Appraisal Objectives To clarify the concepts related to Performance Appraisal and create an awareness regarding its method of implementation in the context of its contribution to Personality Development. Content Performance Appraisal and overview - Techniques of Performance Appraisal - What should performance appraisal measure and who should do it - Application of Performance Appraisal - Designing a Performance Appraisal System Time Schedule 35 minutes - Performance Appraisal and Overview 30 minutes - Techniques of Performance Appraisal 45 minutes - What should performance appraisal measure 30 minutes - Application of Performance Appraisal 45 minutes - Designing a Performance Appraisal System Instructions to Trainers Performance Appraisal – an overview This is the first topic of the Unit. The following points should be covered: 1) Concept of Performance Appraisal 2) Need for Performance Appraisal 3) Ways of Performance Appraisal Methodology suggested : Lecture Duration : 35 minutes Techniques of Performance Appraisal This session should cover important Performance Appraisal Techniques and their relative merits and demerits. Methodology suggested : Lecture Duration : 30 minutes What should Performance Appraisal measure and who should do it a. What should Performance Appraisal measure 1) Work related knowledge 2) Creativity 3) Perceiverancies 4) Willingness to change 5) Attitude towards Boss-subordinates, Colleagues and Organisations 6) Skill Development b. Who should do it Discussion on this topic should lead to identification of the ideal person to do the job taking in to account factors such as job position, knowledge, skills, creativity etc. Methodology : Lecture-cum-discussion Duration : 45 minutes Application of Performance Appraisal 1) Basis for reward and punishment 2) Basis for Personality Development Methodology : Lecture-cum-discussion Duration : 30 minutes Designing a Performance Appraisal System Group Work Development of a Performance Appraisal System for your organisation. 45 minutes to be apportion as suggested below: 10 minutes - Individual Enumerate points 10 minutes - Uninterupted Presentation by individuals 25 minutes - Group Discussion 15 minutes - Presentation and Discussion Day Five (Forenoon) - Time Management Objectives To impart relevant knowledge, sharpen the requisite skills and orient attitudes of participants so that they become more efficient with regard to the management of time. Contents The concept of time and time management – uniqueness of time as a resource – the cost of time – importance of and need for time management – causes of time mismanagement – urgency addiction and time management matrix – hard work vs. smart work – demands on one’s time – different time management styles – time cheaters and beaters – goal setting and planning for long term time management – short term time management – good ideas for time management – managing meetings effectively – steps towards better time management. Methodology Methodology shall consist of lectures, inventories, exercises, discussions and film show. Time Schedule 1. Introductory lecture covering basic concepts - 15 minutes 2. Estimating participants cost of time - 10 minutes 3. Causes of time management - 15 minutes (Lecture-cum-Discussion) 4. Smart work Vs. hard work - 10 minutes (Lecture-cum-Discussion) 5. Demands on time and time management styles (Lecture) - 20 minutes 6. Identification of participant’s time management styles - 10 minutes 7. The concept of time management matrix (lecture) - 10 minutes 8. Time cheaters and beaters (inventory) - 10 minutes 9. Long term and short term time management (Lecture) - 15 minutes 10. Managing meetings (lecture) - 10 minutes 11. Experience sharing (by participants) - 15 minutes 12. Steps towards better time management - 15 minutes (lecture-cum-discussion) 13. Action Planning (Group Exercise) - 15 minutes 14. Presentation of Plans - 10 minutes ---------------------- Total - 180 minutes Instruction to Trainers During the introductory lecture itself developing time sensitivity among participants should be attempted or rather achieved. Participants should be made aware of the uniqueness of time as the only resource equally distributed among people. The following characteristics about time also will have to be highlighted. (i) non-retrievability (ii) non-reservability (iii) irreplacability (iv) irreversibility Estimating cost of participants’ time may be done using the proforma suggested. Enumeration of the causes of time mismanagement should basically be an outcome of discussion during which participants should be encouraged to generate ideas. Participants should be made to distinguish between hard work and smart work citing examples from their own lives or situations familiar to them. Identification of individual time management styles can also be done using the relevant proforma which will help classifying people in to the following 8 groups. 1. Balanced time managers 2. Those who do their things well 3. Those who do others things well 4. Those with good intentions but no productivity 5. Unrealistic dreamers 6. Those who are on a tread mill 7. Delightful but incompetent persons 8. Persons neither delightful nor competent The concept of time management matrix should be an eye opener to everyone. The characteristics of, and differences between, the quadrant of quality and the quadrant of deception should be made clear to all concerned. The participants should be urged to become quadrant II (quality) oriented. Use of the proforma Time Cheaters and Beaters can be expected to make participants aware of the time cheaters which affect them and the corresponding time beaters they can use to deal with them. Discussion on long term and short term time management should provide participants with further theoretical base and pragmatic ideas for effective time management. The lecture on managing meetings will be very useful for those with conference / leadership responsibilities. However, this section can be skipped during programmes where the participants do not have such responsibilities. Experience sharing should precede the discussion session on “steps towards better time management”. The success and failures narrated during experience sharing should provide inputs/ideas for group discussion. For the group exercise viz., Action Planning, participants should be divided in to group of 5 members and a leader selected and assigned responsibilities. At the end, each group should be made to present their reports. Day Five (Afternoon) - Motivation Objective To make the participants aware of the multifaceted impact of the concept of Motivation upon efficient organizational functioning. Contents Introduction - Relevance and Types of Motivation - Theories of motivation - Analysis of Motivation - Motivating the subordinate. Methodology (1) Lecture Method (2) Questionnaire Method Time Schedule 30 minutes - Introduction 30 minutes - Relevance and types of Motivation 30 minutes - Motivating the subordinates 30 minutes - Analysis of Motivation Instructions to Trainers 1. Introduction The session relating to this topic should cover informations relating to different motivational concepts and the theories of Maslow Mc Clelland, Herzberg and so on. 2. Relevance and Types of Motivation In this session participants should be provided with informations pertaining to the relevance of Motivation to performance. They should also be made aware of the different types of motivations such as Positive motivation, Negative or Fear motivation, Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation etc. 3. Analysis of Motivation Through the use of case analysis and questionnaire the participants should be made aware of the operation of the different motivational concepts. 4. Motivating Subordinates Through the use of active discussion with the participants, the trainers can make the participants informed about the methods by which motivational level of subordinates can be enhanced. Day Five (Afternoon) - Evaluation and Valediction Time Schedule (1 hour) This session should be devoted to prepare an Action Plan and Evaluation. It is expected to incorporate all possible ideas and suggestions that have evolved during the course of training. An evaluation feed back regarding the merits and demerits of the module will also sought. T.P.LEADERSHIP QUESTIONNAIRE Directions The following items describe aspects of leadership behaviour. Respond to each item according to what you would most likely act if you were the leader of a work group by circling the appropriate response given at the left of each statement. Code Response A Always F Frequently O Occasionally S Seldom N Never A F O S N 1. I would most likely act as the spokesman of the group A F O S N 2. I would encourage overtime work A F O S N 3. I would allow members complete freedom in their work A F O S N 4. I would encourage the use of uniform procedures A F O S N 5. I would permit the members to use their own judgement in solving problems A F O S N 6. I would stress being ahead of competing groups A F O S N 7. I would speak as the representatives of the group A F O S N 8. I would needle members for greater effort A F O S N 9. I would try out my ideas in the group A F O S N 10. I would let the members do their work the way they think best A F O S N 11. I would be working hard for a promotion A F O S N 12. I would tolerate postponement and uncertainty A F O S N 13. I would speak for the group if there were visitors A F O S N 14. I would keep the work moving at a rapid pace A F O S N 15. I would turn the members loose on a job and let them go to it. A F O S N 16. I would settle conflicts when they occur in the group A F O S N 17. I would get swamped by details A F O S N 18. I would represent the group at outside meetings. A F O S N 19. I would be reluctant to allow the members any freedom of action. A F O S N 20. I would decide what should be done and how it should be done. A F O S N 21. I would push for increased production. A F O S N 22. I would let some members have authority which I could keep. A F O S N 23. Things would usually turn out as I had predicted. A F O S N 24. I would allow the group a high degree of initiative. A F O S N 25. I would assign group members to particular tasks. A F O S N 26. I would be willing to make changes. A F O S N 27. I would ask the members to work harder. A F O S N 28. I would trust the group members to exercise good judgement. A F O S N 29. I would schedule the work to be done A F O S N 30. I would refuse to explain my actions A F O S N 31. I would persuade others that my ideas are to their Advantage A F O S N 32. I would permit the group to set its own pace. A F O S N 33. I would urge the group to beat its previous records. A F O S N 34. I would act without consulting the group. A F O S N 35. I would ask that group members follow standard rules and regulations. T.P.LEADERSHIP SCORING SHEET For every statement for which your response is either of the two indicated against each, you score one point. Mark each item by placing a √ if you score. T Score P Score Item No Response Item No Response 1 A or F 2 A or F 3 A or F 4 5 A or F 6 A or F 7 A or F 8 S or N 9 A or F 10 A or F 11 A or F 12 S or N 13 A or F 14 A or F 15 A or F 16 A or F 17 S or N 18 S or N 19 S or N 20 A or F 21 A or F 22 A or F 23 A or F 24 A or F 25 A or F 26 A or F 27 A or F 28 A or F 29 A or F 30 S or N 31 A or F 32 A or F 33 A or F 34 S or N 35 S or N Total Score (total No of √ s) Total Score (Total No of √ s) T.P.LEADERSHIP-STYLE PROFILE SHEET Name Orgn Directions: To determine your style of leadership, mark your score on the concern for task dimension (T) on the left-hand arrow below. Next, move to the right hand arrow and mark your score on the concern for people-dimension (P). Draw a straight line that intersects the P and T scores. The point at which that line crosses the shared leadership arrow indicates your score on the dimension. SHARED LEADERSHIP RESULTS FROM BALANCING CONCERN FOR TASK AND CONCERN FOR PEOPLE 20 High 15 15 Medium 10 10 5 Low 5 Autocratic Leadership High Productivity Shared Leadership High Morale and Productivity Laissez-faire Leadership High Morale EXPLORING YOUR PERSONALITY Show how frequently you do each of the following behaviours by placing (√) in the proper column opposite each item. Frequency Behaviour on the job Almost Never Rarely Sometimes Frequently Very Frequently 1. I give people reasons why my work isn’t done 2. I feel bad about something (about what someone did or said to me, or about something I did or said) 3. I expect people to do what I say 4. I send out a questionnaire or carry out a survey to get needed information 5. I do what my boss says to do even when it’s difficult 6. I feel guilty about something (not getting a job done on time, coming in late, working too hard, and so on) 7. I play a hunch without bothering to gather factual data. 8. I smile at other people (co-workers, subordinates, customers, superiors, and so on) 9. I suggest that an ill person see the nurse or take the rest of the day off. 10. I insist that things be done my way. 11. I hear a voice in my head saying something like:”Those people should……….. 12. When I know something won’t be ready when I want it, I repeatedly ask if it might possible be ready ahead of schedule. 13. I find ways to make a boring task interesting. 14. I attend classes, programs, seminars, and so on, to improve my job skills. 15. I have a feeling that something unusual is about to happen before it happens. 16. I plan ways to do things that might be considered harmful, illegal, or unethical. 17. I say (or think) things like:”What would you do without me?” 18. I do a little dance step when walking into a friend’s office or work area. 19. I correct subordinates when they fail to perform up to standard 20. I cleverly figure out how to get my own way at someone else’s expense 21. I keep calm when in an emotionally charged atmosphere. 22. I help my co-workers, subordinates, or boss by going a little out of my way to do something for them. 23. I feel hurt and go off somewhere to be by myself. 24. I put people down without thinking. 25. I take a stretch break and really enjoy the feeling of loosening up my muscles and relaxing 26. I say “please” and “thank you”. 27. I say or think things like: “I’ll do it for them; they can’t be expected to handle it.” 28. I talk about facts when another person is in need of comfort. 29. I take the last one of the doughnuts or other goodies someone brought for coffee break. 30. I gather necessary information and then use my sixth sense to make an accurate interpretation 31. I help out co-worker in an emergency 32. I insist that others take care of themselves-for example, that they wear a coat on a windy day or carry an umbrella if it looks like ran. 33. I answer the phone in a well-modulated voice, giving my name or the name of my company for unit. 34. I slyly work out a way to avoid doing a job that’s been assigned to me. 35. I set people straight when they aren’t doing their job properly 36. I set standards for proper performance. Reference: JONGEWARDM D & SEYER P C CHOOSING SUCCESS (Transactional Analysis on the job) Publisher: John Wiley & Sons Inc.1978 Now that you’ve filled out the questionnaire. Let’s score it. Here’s how to do it. 1. Give yourself a score for each question using this formula 4 points for “very frequently” 3 points for “frequently” 2 point for “sometimes” 1 point for “rarely” 0 points for “almost never” 2. Write your scores in the proper boxes in the chart. For example, if you answered question 1 with “sometimes,” you would put a “2” in the box indicated for question 1. If you answered “very frequently” for question 2, you would put a “4” in the box designated for question 2, and so on. 3. Add the numbers in each column and enter the totals in the spaces provided. The total for the first column is your score for your CP (Controlling Parent). The total for the column labeled NP is your score for your Nurturing Parent, and so on. CP - Controlling Parent NP – Nurturing Parent A - Adult NC – Natural Child LP - Little Professor AC - Adapted Child Question No Ego State CP NP A NC LP AC 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. Totals CP NP A NC LP AC PLEASE FOLLOW THE INSTRUCTIONS 01. Read everything before doing anything, but work as rapidly as you can 02. Put you name and address in the space provided for: Name:…………………………… Address:…………………………. 03. Circle the world name in the second instruction 04. Write the name of your native place:………………………. 05. Now draw a circle around the title of this paper 06. Sign your name under the title 07. In sentence four, draw a circle around the word “native”. 08. Write the name of India’s Capital:…………………….. 09. Underline all of sentence seven 10. Stand up for a few seconds (2 to 5 seconds will do) 11. Draw an “X” in the lower left hand corner of this paper 12. Draw a circle around the “X” you drew just now 13. Write the name of your husband or wife if you are married If not, write your father’s name:…………….. 14. Draw a circle around the word “Capital” in sentence eight 15. Shout out loud your name when you get to this point 16. If you think you have followed instructions to this point, call out “I HAVE” in such way that everyone in the room can hear you. 17. Close your eyes and raise your left hand over your head 18. Write your designation 19. Count out loud and clear in your voice, backwards from ten to one. 20. Now that you have red the instructions carefully, do only what instructions one and twenty ask to do. Ignore all other directions. Note: Please do not give this paper to anybody; make no comments or explanations If you have read this far, pretend that you are still writing. Let us see how many persons really follow instructions carefully. SEPARATE FACT FROM INFERENCE Read the narration carefully which follows. Then see how well you can distinguish a FACT from an INFERENCE. Shama, a buyer with the XYZ company, was scheduled for a 10 O’Clock meeting in Singh’s office to discuss the terms of a large order. On the way to that office, the buyer slipped on a freshly waxed floor and as a result received a badly bruised leg. By the time Singh was notified of the accident, Shama was on the way to the hospital for X-ray. Singh called the hospital to enquire, but no one there seemed to know anything about Sharma. It is possible that Singh called the wrong hospital. Examine the statements below. Without discussion, put a tick (√) mark against each statement as to whether it is a FACT or an INFERENCE (in the personal choice columns) Statements Personal Choice Group Choice Fact Inference Fact Inference 1. Mr.Shama is a buyer 2. Shama was supposed to meet with Singh 3. Shama was scheduled for a 10 O’Clock meeting 4. The accident occurred at the XYZ company 5. Shama was taken to the hospital for XRay 6. No one at the hospital which Singh called knew anything about Shama 7. Singh had called the wrong hospital COMMUNICATING EFFECTIVELY-I (LISTENING) 1. Are you waiting impatiently for thee other person to shut up so that you can talk? 2. Are you in such a hurry to offer a solution that you don’t want to hear the problem? 3. Are you listening only for what you like to hear? 4. Do emotional blocks get in the way of your listening? 5. Do your thoughts take side excursions while the other person is talking? 6. Are you memorizing more details instead of getting the main points? 7. Do you quit listening when the subject matter gets difficult? 8. Do you have a negative attitude while listening? 9. Do you just pretend to listen? 10. Do you put yourself in the speaker’s place to understand what makes him/her say that? 11. Do you take into account that you and the speaker may not be discussing the same question? 12. Are you alert for misunderstandings that could arise because the words don’t mean the same to you as they do to the speaker? 13. Do you try to find out what the argument is about? Whether there is a real difference of opinions or is it just a matter of stating the problem? COMMUNICATING EFFECTIVELY-II (SPEAKING) Are you careful to watch for signs of misunderstandings in your listener? Do you choose words that fit the listener’s intelligence and backgrounds? Do you think out directions before giving them? Do you breakdown orders in to small enough packages? If your listener does not ask questions about a new idea you are presenting, do you assume that he/she understands it? Do you speak distinctly? Control distractions as far as possible? Do you “bale” your thoughts before speaking so that you won’t ramble? Do you put the listener at ease? Do you encourage questions? Do you assume that you know what the other person has in his/her mind? Or do you ask questions to find out? Do you distinguish between facts and opinions? Do you stiffen up the opposition by contradicting his/her/their statements? Do you influence your listeners to be “Yes Sir”, “Yes Madam” or “Yes friend” people? RATING SCALE FOR ASSESSING PERFORMANCE OF PRESENTATIONS Name of Presenter:………………………………………………………………….. Attribute Rating Excellent (5) Good (4) So So (3) Poor (2) Bad (1) 01. Correctness of Language 02. Clarity of words 03. Clarity of thought 04. Logical sequence of ideas 05. Speed 06. Audibility 07. Voice modulation 08. Use of pauses 09. Body posture 10. Facial Expression 11.Eye contact with audience 12. Gestures 13. Mannerisms (Visual & Vocal) 14. Confidence 15. Manners HOW MUCH IS YOUR TIME WORTH? Annual Salary Overhead Benefits Your Staff Salaries Their Ovhd & Benefits TOTAL 52 Weeks (Rs/hr) 45 hrs/week CAUSES OF TIME MISMANAGEMENT Procrastination: The world procrastinate comes from the latin word for ‘tomorrow’. Procrastination can be defined as intentionally, habitually, and without good reason, putting off things that should be done now. Procrastination is the world’s number one timewaster. Poor Delegation: Delegation means entrusting a task to another person, together with the authority to do it. Delegation is a gift of trust which will generate an answering trust. Both parties will benefit from good delegation. Poor delegation arises from a lack of trust. If you don’t entrust the other person with enough work to do, or you check everything they do too carefully, you are a poor delegator. Organized Workplace: If you don’t have a properly organized workplace you can waste time trying to find the information you need to get your work done. Looking for a missing file is a good example of non value-added time! Wasting Your Peak Time: You should do your hardest tasks when you are at your peak energy level. Working Without Goals: If you don’t have goals, you can’t set priorities. If you can’t set priorities you will mismanage time. DO NOT WORK HARD But work ‘smart’. Working ‘smart’ means organizing yourself so that you invest your time only in value-added activities. These are activities which contribute toward achieving your goals and objectives. There are three types of demand on your time: Planning : is organizing Doing : is carrying out the plan as decided Interacting : is working with other people Your time Planning Doing Interacting What is your style? Plus – You are strong Minus- You need improvement Tick your style You are a Plus Time Manager If you had two or more pluses Planning Doing Interacting Style + + + You are a balanced person + + _ You do your own things well _ + + You do others’ Priorities well + _ + You have good intentions but no work done You are a Minus Time Manager If you had two or more Minuses Planning Doing Interacting Style + _ _ Unrealistic Dreamer _ + _ You are on a tread mill _ _ + Delightful Person but incompetent _ _ _ Neither delightful nor competent An Inch of gold cannot buy an inch of time. Planning Doing Interacting Plus Minus Plus Minus Plus Minus Urgent Not Urgent I •= Crises •= Pressing problems •= Deadline-driven projects, meetings preparations II •= Preparation •= Prevention •= Values clarification •= Planning •= Relationship building •= True re-creation •= Empowerment III •= Interruptions, some phone calls •= Some mail, some reports •= Some meetings •= Many proximate, pressing matters •= Many popular activities IV •= Trivia, busywork •= Junk mail •= Some phone calls •= Time wasters •= “Escape” activities TIME CHEATERS & BEATERS Time cheaters come in all shapes and sizes. They can be physical and mental, created by you or imposed upon you by other people. The important thing is to become aware of them and then you can earn to deal with them. Time Cheater Is this me? Time Beater I spend too much time talking to people who won’t go away Learn to be firm, say I don’t mean to be rude but I must get on with my work I get side tracked easily and lack self discipline Make action plans, stick to them and reward yourself for good time keeping My colleagues/friends interrupt me all the time. Set aside times when you don’t want to be disturbed. I take on too much work Learn to say “No” politely but firmly. Time runs out! I am always rushed and late When you make your plans, allow extra time for unexpected surprises! I get panicky and try to do everything at once. Prioritise! I spend ages looking for letters and files You need to organize your work space. Use filing and sorting systems. Staff interrupt with questions about work I have assigned. Learn to delegate effectively I spend too much time in meetings that don’t accomplish anything Learn about conducting effectively meetings. INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT IN GOVERNMENT THIRUVANANTHAPURAM TRAINING MODULE ON PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT READING MATERIAL Sponsored by Department of Personnel & Training Government of India & United Nation's Development Programme Prepared by Dr.Chandraprasad Sreedhar, IMG, Trivandrum & Mr.Oommen Mathew, IMG, Kochi CONTENTS Page Number 1. Leadership 1 2. Interpersonal Relations 11 3. Communication in Organizations 23 4. Stress Management 32 5. Group Dynamics and Team Building 51 6. Conflict Management 58 7. Performance Appraisal 64 8. Time Management 77 9. Motivation 87 LEADERSHIP Leadership is an integral part of management and plays a vital role in managerial operations. If there is any single factor that differentiates between successful and unsuccessful organizations, it could be considered as dynamic and effective leadership. Perhaps, it would be a valid assumption to state that the major cause of most business failures would be ineffective leadership. All managers, in a way, are business leaders, even though management primarily relies on formal position power to influence people whereas leadership stems from a social influence process. However, management is an integral component of technical as well as social processes. A question which many a novice in Management ask and experts echo is whether “Manager” and “Leader” are synonymous terms. Are the functions of the ‘Manager’ the same as those of the Leader? Are the two roles the same? Or, are they different? If they are – are there or rather aren’t there areas of functional similarities? To what extent do they differ in direction and/or magnitude? Before attempting to answer the million dollar question “Are all leaders managers or are all managers leaders? It will be prudent to clarify the concepts of leadership and management. An extremely simplistic yet profoundly meaningful definition of leadership states it as the “Phenomenon of one person influencing the thinking or action or both of another person or groups of persons”. Management has been defined in various ways by different authors. In fact, there exists almost as many definitions for management as there are authors on the topic. There is neither the scope nor the need to examine the various definitions of management in this discussion. However, two of them may be considered. One of the earliest universally accepted definitions of management considered it as the “process of getting things done through and by people”. One of the modern definitions of management describes it as “the process of ensuring effectiveness and efficiency in achieving goals or objectives”. From the above discussion, it is clear that whenever one influences the thinking or action or both of another person or a group, he/she is a leader and the phenomenon of leadership exists. This is so irrespective of what the “influence” aims or achieves. Even if the followers are “influenced” for some antisocial activities, the phenomenon involved is leadership and the one exhibiting it is a leader. Managers have to influence their “people” for achieving organizational objectives, which, we assume, to be morally right and legally straight. So, all managers have a leadership role to play. But all that every leader does may not be very “Managerial”. In short, all managers are leaders, but all leaders need not necessarily be managers. It should be remembered that this statement is made considering the roles of “leaders” and “managers” and not with reference to any individual with a managerial title or acceptance as a leader. Categories of leaders: Based on the functions they perform, leaders can be classified into: (i) Entrepreneurial (ii) Administrative and (iii) Political (i) Entrepreneurial Leaders: As the term indicates, these are leaders who build organizations, these institution builders perform the tasks of initiation and structuring. They organize the required resources and put them in to effective and efficient use to create institutions of various sizes, nature and scope eg. Trade unions, hospitals, schools, colleges, places of worship, cultural organizations etc. Entrepreneurial leaders are highly motivated self starters who can get along reasonably well with a wide range of people with whom they can co-operate and from whom they can get co-operation. They will not be dispirited with setbacks and will not take “no” for an answer. (ii) Administrative leaders: These are leaders whose performance will be at its peak when they are put in charge of running organizations they work for the maintenance and growth of the organizations, they plan, organize, staff, direct and control the organizations which may be expected to “safe” in their hands. They ensure that right men occupy right positions and that tasks are carried out effective and efficiently. They undertake environmental scanning and do SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats) analysis, based on which they define and redefine the mission of their organizations, set targets and objectives and formulate policies and strategies. They have a clear idea of what the organization should be at present and where it should be in the future. (iii) Political leaders: By “political leaders” are meant those who act as representatives or spokesmen of their groups and strive for the redressal of the grievances of their groups in general and its members in particular. Many of them act on an ‘ad hoc’ basis not being very visible normally but appearing on the scene all of a sudden when a problem crops up, the tackling of which requires their attention. They may even leave the scene once the issue has been settled. Discussion on Leader Categories: In every individual, all kinds of leadership skills may be present but their relative concentrations vary. The implication for the top management is that organizational success depends on allocating tasks and responsibilities to individuals based on their talents and capabilities. The message for the individual is that one should identify where his/her predominant leadership skills lie and as far as possible try to seek tasks which are in tune with them. When there is little scope for choosing tasks in accordance with ones leadership endowments, developing skills required for the tasks at hand become imperative. Leadership Styles Based on “how” a leader performs his/her tasks, various leadership styles can be identified, viz. authoritarian (i) - autocratic paternalistic (ii) - democratic (iii) - laissez faire (free rein) The basis for the above classification is two fold, viz., (i) - mode of decision making (ii) - manner of implementation (i) Autocratic leadership style : As the term suggests, this is a leader-centred style where followers are reduced to insignificance. The autocratic leadership style itself has two variations, viz., authoritarian and paternalistic. (a) Authoritarian Leadership Style : The authoritarian leader takes all decisions by himself/herself and will try to implement them even resorting to the use of force or coercion. The authoritarian leader is only concerned about the “tasks” but not the “people” with whom the tasks have to be achieved. If his/her followers/subordinates approach him/her with a problem, they face in implementing the leaders decisions or carrying out his/her orders, the leader takes the stand, I am not bothered about your problems. You …………… expedite and report”. (b) Paternalistic leadership style: Leaders who exhibit this style assume the parental role for themselves. They also take all decisions like the authoritarian leaders, but when it comes to implementation they resort to tact and diplomacy rather than force and coercion. The paternalistic leader considers his followers as immature children incapable of making decision and needing about the task as well as the people. If subordinates approach a paternalistic leader with their problems, they can expect empathic understanding and consideration. The paternalistic leader may be expected to sit with the subordinates to sort out their proablems and help them reach or identify solutions. (ii) Democratic leadership style: The style of leadership which recognises and respects every member of the group or team as an individual with capabilities, rights and responsibilities and a potential contributor to the group processes including task achievements, is called democratic leadership style. Where democratic leadership style is followed, decision making and implementation are consultative and participative processes. It should be appreciated that the situation is not akin to one, where say, in a group of w00, what 51 people suggest is accepted and the opinions and suggestions of the remaining 49 are rejected mercilessly. That at best be termed majocracy. Where democratic leadership style is practised, one is free to express his/her opinions as everybody’s opinions and their right to express them are respected. A member gets an opportunity to understand why his/her suggestions are not accepted as the group’s decision, even when that is the case. The ultimate group decision is everybody’s. When one had a say in the making of a decision, a high level of commitment may be expected to be exhibited by the group members for its achievement. (iii) Laissez faire or free rein leadership style: Whether one follows autocracy or democracy as a leadership style, the leader will be performing the basic functions of providing direction and control to the group. The autocratic and democratic leaders differ only in the manner in which they perform the direction and control functions. Apart from this, there are leaders who follow a policy of “no intervention” in group processes. Their style is called “Laissez faire” or “free rein”. There are behavioural scientists who even object to considering this as “leadership” as the “leader” does not discharge the basic functions of direction and control. However, one may find many in leadership positions practising this style. Discussion on Leadership Styles To decide on the “best leadership style” one has to enumerate the merits and demerits of each, evaluate their effectiveness and efficiency and more than anything else, see whether they deliver the goods”. Analysis of the various leadership styles conclusively proves that there does not exist something as the “best” leadership style. If there existed one, it should have proved successful under all circumstances. It can be observed that different leadership styles produce the best results under different conditions and circumstances. That which results in the most favourable and desirable outcome under any particular circumstances is the “right” leadership style in that context. The success of the manager depends on his/her ability to identify the “right” leadership style in that context. The success of the manager depends on his/her ability to identify the “right” leadership style in any given situation and then exhibit enough flexibility and adaptability to practice that style. Sources of Leader Influence on Followers What provides a leader with the capacity to influence followers? Why will subordinates respond to the influence attempts of a leader by doing that the leader intends or wishes them to do? In other words, what is the source of the leader’s power over subordinates? Five distinct sources of leader power or influence have been identified. Any particular leader may have at his or her disposal any combination of these different sources of power. 1. Reward Power refers to the leader’s capacity to reward followers. To the extent that a leader possesses and controls rewards that are valued by subordinates, the leader’s power increases. Rewards at a leader’s disposal fall into two categories. Rewards such as praise, recognition and attention are sources of personal power possessed by the leader as an individual. In addition, a leader also usually controls certain organizational rewards, such as pay raises, promotions and other perquisites. These are sources of power that depend upon the leader’s position in the organization. 2. Coercive power is the flip side of reward power and refers to the leader’s capacity to coerce or punish followers. Sources of coercive power also break down into personal and positional components. Leaders personally possess coercive power to the extent that followers experience criticism or lack of recognition from their leader as unpleasant or punishing. In addition, leaders possess coercive power to the extent that their position permits them to administer organizational sources of punishment (such as demotion, with holding of pay increases or firing) to followers. 3. Legitimate power refer to the power a leader possesses as a result of occupying a particular position or role in the organization. In every organization, certain types of requests and directions issued by leaders to subordinates are viewed to be legitimate and valid. Subordinates are obligated to comply with such requests because of the norms, policies, and procedures accepted as legitimate by all members of the organization. Legitimate power is clearly a function of the leader’s position in the organization and is completely independent of any of the leader’s personal characteristics. 4. Expert power refers to power that a leader possesses as a result of his or her knowledge and expertise regarding the tasks to be performed by subordinates. Subordinates are most likely to respond positively to a leader’s attempts to influence their behaviour if they view the leader as a competent and in possession of knowledge and information regarding effective task performance that they themselves lack. The possession of expert power by a leader obviously depends upon the personal characteristics of the leader (ie., his or her personal expertise) and is not determined by the formal position that the leader occupies in the organization. 5. Referent power is dependent upon the extent to which subordinates identify with, look up to and wish to emulate the leader. The more that subordinates admire and identify with the leaders, the greater the leader’s referent power over subordinates. Referent power, like expert power, is totally dependent upon the personal characteristics of the leader and does not depend directly upon the leader’s formal organizational position. Current Issues in Leadership In addition to focusing on the different powers discussed above, leadership researchers have also recently identified a number of new and important issues that deserve our attention. Leadership as Mutual Influence The very term leadership naturally serves to draw our attention to leaders themselves and focuses our interest on the ways in which leaders influence their followers. As a result, research on leadership has tried to understand how different types of leaders and different types of leader behaviours cause follower to react in different ways. An important contribution of recent research on leadership has been to point out the shortsightedness of this view of leader-follower relations. While it is no doubt true that leaders can and do influence their followers, it is also true that leaders and followers engage in interaction with one another, which necessarily implies the existence of mutual influence. In other words, not only is it true that leaders influence followers, but it is equally true that followers influence leaders. Constraints on Leadership Behaviour In thinking about leadership as mutual influence process we are taking in to account the fact that the behaviour of subordinates has a casual influence upon the behaviour of the leader. In other words, leaders do not decide how they are going to behave in total isolation from their subordinates. Leader must select and adjust their leadership style in light of how their subordinates are performing and responding. But acknowledging that the behaviour of subordinates can influence how leaders behave raises the question of what other factors may be influencing and constraining what leaders do. In fact, it turns out that leaders are far from totally free and unencumbered in choosing their leadership style. Subordinate Behaviour As was pointed out in our discussion of leadership as a mutual influence process, the evidence is quite clear that the performance of subordinates has a critical casual impact upon that a leader does and how he or she behaves toward followers. Characteristics of Subordinates In addition to what subordinates do and how they perform, other identifiable traits, or characteristics, of subordinates may influence the leader’s behaviour as well as the behaviour of the subordinates themselves. For example, a leader may behave differently toward males and females, older and younger people, and those with similar as opposed to different personal backgrounds from his or her own. Characteristics of the Leader The leader’s abilities and personal characteristics obviously influence and constrain what the leader does and how he or she behaves toward subordinates. On the ability side, task relevant knowledge and skill, as well as supervisory skills and sensitivities, will have an important impact. In terms of trait, personality characteristics such as assertiveness, dominance, and self-confidence all have an influence on leadership behaviour. Leaders Superiors How leaders treat their subordinates is strongly influenced by how the leaders themselves are treated by their own immediate superiors. Superiors serve both as role models for the leadership behaviour of individuals toward their own subordinates and as sources of rewards and punishments. Leaders with immediate superiors who preach, practice, and reward a participative management style, for example, are unlikely to treat their subordinates in a directive and authoritarian fashion. Leaders Peers As in almost all thing, peers have an important influence upon how leaders behave. Peer pressure has a potent homogenizing impact upon leadership behaviour in an organization. Other managers in an organisation ar likely to exert both direct and indirect pressure on individual leaders to behave toward their subordinates in a fashion that is consistent with that practised by other managers at that level in the organisation. Organizational Policies, Norms and Climate Some organizations are characterised by a very open, democratic, and participative management style. Such an organizational climate and policy ill obviously influence a leader to behave as a participative manager. Very different leadership behaviours would be expected in an organization characterised by a very closed and authoritarian policy of management. Nature of Subordinates – Tasks The nature of the tasks that subordinates are performing also influences the behaviour of leaders toward subordinates. A very vague and ambiguous task such as developing the design of a new product from scratch is bound to elicit different types of leadership behaviour than is a highly structured and routine task such as producing a particular number of units on an assembly line. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS (TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS IN MANAGEMENT: TOWARDS PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT) Introduction All of us are social beings and interact with others in the process of satisfying our human needs and achieving our goals. In management, irrespective of your level, you have to interact with others – peers, superiors and subordinates. And most importantly, in some organizations, with general public. You may have to communicate with people of different sexes, ages, education, skills, personalities and temperaments. Ability to understand the nature and dynamics of interactions with others will help an individual to become more effective communicator – which means more positive respect for self better performance and achievement of organizational goals, more satisfied and committed employees, effective relationships with superiors and peers, more satisfied consumers or clients. What is Transactional Analysis? What does T/A do? What does T/A not do? What are the dynamics of T/A? How can I become more effective with the use of T/A? What is Transactional Analysis? “Transactional Analysis (T/A) is one of the tools developed by behavioural scientists which is used for analysis of transactions” or understanding of communications that occur between people. It is a rational approach to understanding behaviour and is based on the assumption that any person can learn to trust himself or herself, think rationally, make independent decisions, and express feelings. “Transactional Analysis” is a tool but also a complete theory of personality, containing techniques of psychotherapy for personal and social growth. A “transaction” means any exchange or interaction that occurs between two or more persons. Transactional analysis concerns itself with the kinds of communication – both verbal and non-verbal – that occur between people. The emphasis of Transactional Analysis is upon positive communication. Transactional Analysis is widely utilised as a consultation method in educational programmes, social institutions, business, hospitals, churches, government organizations, and other organizations. The late Eric Berne, M.D., the principal innovator and developer of Transactional Analysis, began experimenting with his ideas by applying them to group psychotherapy, but more recently it is widely used in family, couples and individuals work. What does Transactional Analysis do or not do? Transactional Analysis increases understanding of self and others. It decreases tendency to be critical of self and others. Transactional Analysis helps reduces stress, frustration and anxiety levels! A few hours exposure to Transactional Analysis is not necessarily going to result in any person being transformed in to a happy and an effective person. Transactional Analysis does not erase all human relations difficulties. All emotional problems won’t be solved with a brief training period and traditional way of doing things that may be non-productive. Lot will depend upon the trainer. There are several who present themselves as experts. These people do more harm than good. Many companies have successfully incorporated Transactional Analysis training in to their overall personnel development programmes. These organizations represent private and public sector industries. State Governments, police systems, educational institutions, municipalities, and professional associations. The benefit which an organization derives from Transactional Analysis are better process diagnosis; clearer problem analysis; reduced non-communication: new tools for selecting people for entry and promotion; and less psychological pollution. Structural Analysis According to Transactional Analysis theory, everyone’s personality has three parts, called ego states. These ego states are named Parent, Adult, and Child. When we capitalize these words, we are talking about ego states rather than real parents, adults or children. Structural analysis involves analyzing the personality to discover the nature of our ego states. You can use structural analysis to better understand who you are and how you got that way. It will help you learn about the various sources of thoughts, feelings and opinions in your personality. Knowing your personality better can add to your effectiveness on the job. i) The Parent Ego State Every one develops a Parent ego state when as children they absorb certain attitudes and ways of behaving from parental figures. When you feel, think, or act as you saw your parents (or other authority figures) act when you were little, you are in your Parent ego state. While in your Parent, you may act in either a controlling, sometimes critical way or in a nurturing, sometimes loving way. Here are some examples of statements you are likely to make while in your Parent. - Controlling Parent: “Nobody can leave until this report is finished” - Nurturing Parent: “I’m sorry you’re not feeling well today. Would you like to go over to the nurse’s office and get some help? I’ll take care of your station”. While in our Parent we respond automatically almost as if a tape recording were playing in our heads and directing our words and actions. For this reason, we often use the phrase “Parent tapes” to refer to: - dialogue from Parent figures stored in our heads, and - automatic responses we make while in our Parent ego state ii) The Adult Ego State Although we respond automatically when in our Parent, we respond analytically when in our Adult. Whenever you are gathering information, reasoning things out, estimating probabilities, and so on, you are in your Adult ego state. While in this ego state you are cool and collected: you make decisions unemotionally. You just want the facts. The Adult ego state has nothing to do with age. Little children have Adult ego states too! For example, when four-year-old Kristi says, “I bet Jeff is home – I see his car,” she is using her budding Adult, since she is calmly estimating probabilities on the basis of facts. iii) The Child Ego State Yes, even though you’re an adult, you have a Child inside you. While in your Child ego state, you feel and act like the little person you once were. Your Child has all of the feelings and impulses of a newborn. It also includes your mental recordings of your: - early experiences - reactions to these experiences, and - learned view of yourself and other people Free or Natural Child (FC or NC) This is the source of our spontaneity, energy and curiosity, with all our potential for life. It represents the way we are when we are born – natural, loving, carefree, adventurous and trusting – with all our capacities for leading a joyful and meaningful existence. This part of us knows no rules and consequently operates without regard for others and is unconcerned about their reactions. Witness the behaviour of the twelvemonth- old exploring its environment! Of course, it would be impossible to maintain the structure of a society on such a basis, and without some adaptations. In fact, in many grown-ups the adaptations are so extensive that they rarely use their Free Child. Some examples of the expression of the Free Child in an organization are: the joy of a major breakthrough in research and the fun at an office party (alcohol first ‘strips away’ the Parent, then the Adult!). Adapted Child As suggested, it does not seem possible to live in a continuous Free Child state and live with other people at the same time. From an early age, we make adaptations to help us get along with and get attention from authority figures, most notably our own parents. Some of these may develop in line with general practice in our society, eg., specific modes of eye and body contact; saying ‘please’, ‘thank you’ and ‘sorry’ at the appropriate times; not making personal comments about others in public. Note how uncomfortable we often feel with those who have not adapted to these culturally agreed ways of behaving. Many more adaptations are unique to the particular family and its situation, and are important in marking us out as individuals. Some examples that create problems in adulthood and are relevant to organizations are compliance, procrastination and rebellion. Compliance Some individuals learn when they are young that the way to get along is always to say ‘yes’. Their problem in adulthood is saying ‘yes’ when their better judgement, experience and knowledge suggests that arguing the point and asserting themselves would be more appropriate. Some personal and organizational disasters might have been avoided if some people had not been so compliant in the past. (Of course, some people in power want nothing better than for others to do exactly what they are told!) Procrastination Some people learn when they are young that a good way to get attention is to procrastinate. Consider these examples from family life: ‘C’mon, get a move on, or we’ll miss the shops!’ ‘Look, put that doll down, tie your shoe laces up and let’s get going. You’re making us late again!’ If a child decides on this basis that delaying gets attention, in adulthood the individual may still be indulging in this behaviour. Certainly, being late is a good way to get attention in organizations (albeit negative) and it may use up more energy, money and time than it is worth (clock cards, counselling interviews, disciplinary interviews etc). Flexitime is no guarantee of cure. Rebellion Many children only get attention when they are ‘naughty’. Such individuals in adulthood may continue this behaviour by seeking bosses and/or institutions (eg., banks, local government, the police) to constantly fight and rebel against. Little Professor Another functional aspect of the Child ego state is frequently introduced and used, although its relationship to the other two is unclear. This is the Little Professor, the intuitive part of us that senses things about other people in a flash. This part of us has those brilliant, non-logical insights giving us solutions to problems that typify some of the major breakthrough in the growth of scientific knowledge. Transactions and its Analysis Transactional analysis is related with the way in which individuals interact with each other. It explains the mechanism that takes place when people are having conversation or are trying to exchange their thoughts, feelings and ideas with each other. Thus, Transactional Analysis essentially refers to the analysis of interactions between people. According to Transactional Analysis, transactions is stimulus plus response (S+R). If two or more people encounter each other, sooner or later one of them will speak, or give some other indication of acknowledging the presence of the others. This is called the “transactional stimulus”. Another person will then say or do something which is in some way related to the stimulus, and that is called transaction response. Transactional Analysis involves the study of the social transactions between people and it deals with determining which part of the multiple-natured individual is being activated Parent, Adult or Child. Transactions and its Types Normally there are three types of transactions: (1) Complementary Transactions; (2) Crossed Transactions; (3) Ulterior Transactions: (a) Duplex; (b) Angular (i) Complementary Transactions A transaction is complementary when communication continues on parallel lines between individuals and the lines of stimulus and response are parallel. Thus, the message transmitted from one ego-state elicits an expected and appropriate response from the proper ego-state of the other individual. The transactions are complementary because both are acting in the perceived and expected ego-states. Usually, in such a case, both individuals are satisfied, everyone feels OK and the communication is complete. Complementary transactions can take place between A-A, P-C, P-P and so on. (ii) Crossed Transactions The lines of stimulus and Response cross each other in case of crossed transactions. Whenever the stimulus and response cross on the P-A-C transactional diagram, communication stops. Transactions become uncomplimentary. The message sent by one ego-state is responded to from an incompatible, unexpected egostate of another person. The inappropriate response generates feelings of hurt and anger and the individuals, instead of coming closer, divert from each other. Crossed transactions are the source of much interpersonal conflict in an organisation. They inhibit free flow of ideas, free thinking, creativity and social interactions. Crossed transactions have many possible dysfunctional consequences for the organisation. (iii) Ulterior Transactions The ulterior type of transactions are most complex because the communication has double meaning as more than ego-states are involved in them. When ulterior message is sent, the literal and intent meanings are not one and the same. Ulterior message is often disguised in a socially acceptable way. On the surface level, the communication has a clear Adult message, whereas it carries a hidden message on the psychological level. Ulterior transactions like crossed transactions are undesirable as they damage interpersonal relationships. Strokes You’ve seen that transactions can be open, blocked, or ulterior. It’s also important to recognize that whenever two people are transacting, they are exchanging “strokes”. What are strokes? To help you understand that term, let’s look at an important discovery made by Rene Spitz. Spitz found that keeping infants fed and in a clean environment was not enough. Such infants became weak and almost seemed to shrivel up if they were not cuddled and stroked. Infants who are touched very little may become physically and mentally retarded; those not touched at all seem to “give up” and die. Before Spitz discovered this, doctors often puzzled at the high death rate in orphanage nurseries. Today in such nurseries “grandmothers” and “grandfathers” volunteer to come in and just cuddle infants. In Transactional Analysis language, the term “stroke” refers to the giving of some kind of recognition to a person. This may or may not involve physical touching. As we grow from infancy into childhood and then adulthood, we do not entirely lose our need for stroking. Part of our original need for physical stroking seems to be satisfied with symbolic stroking. We no longer need constant cuddling, but we still need attention. When we receive a stroke, we may choose to feel either good or bad. If we choose to feel good, we might think of the stroke as a “warm fuzzy” (or positive stroke). On the flip side, if we choose to feel bad, we can think of it as a “cold prickly” (or negative stroke). Since we have a basic need for strokes, we will work hard to get them. For example, ignored children will engage in all sorts of creative acts to get stroked. Often such children quickly learn that they can get strokes by: - talking in a loud, whiny, high-pitched voice, - spilling milk on a clean table cloth, and - injuring themselves A child who carries out one of these actions is likely to get a cold prickly (negative stroke). But it seems to make no difference to a stroke-deprived child. To such a child, any kind of stroke is better than none at all: a cold prickly is better than nothing! The same is true for adults who work in a stroke-deprived environment. Example Lennie, a shipping clerk in a small mail-order firm, worked alone. Yet he got a lot of strokes from Kevin, his supervisor. Kevin often stopped by Lennie’s work station just to chat. These strokes were not usually given for any particular job performance since Lennie’s job was rather routine and didn’t require any special skills. However, Kevin did compliment Lennie for his consistent performance. Then one day Kevin was promoted. Lennie’s new supervisor, Laura, had a different approach. She didn’t stop to chat with her subordinates and spoke to them only when she was dissatisfied with their work. Life positions Another way of looking at relationships between people is through the concept of ‘life position’, sometimes referred to as the basic position or existential position. A person’s life position at any given time expresses in some way just how that individual is relating to others in terms of thinking, feeling and behaving. There are four basic life positions, shown below referred to as the OK corral. OK Corral I’m not OK I’m OK You’re OK You’re OK I’m not OK I’m OK You’re not OK You’re not OK Examples of Life Positions The idea of life positions can be demonstrating the following examples. 1. ‘Hey, we did a good job there’, says the boss. ‘Yes, things ar really going well for us now’, says the subordinate (I’m OK, you’re OK) 2. ‘Your work is not up to the standard I need in this department!’ says the boss (I’m OK, you’re not OK) 3. ‘I wish I could keep on top of things the way you can’, says the subordinate (I’m not OK, you’re OK) 4. ‘Well, I don’t know what to do and you don’t know what to do. What a mess!’ says the boss. (I’m not OK, you’re not OK) Characteristics of the Life Positions I’M OK, YOU’RE OK (I + U+) This is sometimes referred to as the get on with position. People occupying this position are optimistic, confident and happy about work and life. They use time constructively, doing the things they most want to. They exchange strokes freely with those they meet, accepting the significance of other people, and decline to put themselves or others down. They are assertive in reaching their aims, ie., they state and elaborate their own views and needs rather than attack other people’s views and needs. Their dominant working style with others is collaboration and mutual respect, sharing authority and responsibility and listening constructively, even if they disagree. The problems they encounter in work and life are faced and dealt with as constructively as possible. They are likely to ‘succeed’ in life within the limits they’ve set themselves, finding satisfaction with work and relationships, and tend to live long, healthy lives. I’M OK, YOU’RE NOT OK (I+ U-) This is sometimes referred to as the get rid of position. It is characterised by feelings of anger, fury and hostility. Others are seen as inferior, unworthy, incompetent, wrong and not to be trusted. Behaviour to others is characterised by such things as spite, victimisation, trapping, condescension, abuse and disregard. They may devote much time to the destruction of the sense of self-worth of others. As well as putting others down, they over-inflate their own self-worth, deny personal problems and find it difficult to give positive strokes. At work they are highly competitive and climb over others at whatever cost to achieve power and status. In wider social terms this is the life position of those who exploit their fellow man, or of those who take dogmatic views, believing theirs to be the only right course. In extreme cases they are homicidal (You are so “not OK”, there’s no point to your living’) I’M NOR OK, YOU’RE OK (I- U+) This is referred to as the get away from position and is typified by feelings such as sadness, inadequacy, stupidity or a sense of being ugly. In this position, people experience themselves as inferior or powerless in relation to others. They put themselves down and find it difficult to accept positive strokes, even being suspicious of them. In relation to work, they undervalue their potential and skills and they avoid or withdraw from difficult situations and problems. In life generally, they don’t succeed, are unhappy, often ill and/or depressed and in extreme cases commit suicide (I’m so useless I may as well not live’) I’M NOT OK, YOU’RE NOT OK (I- U-) This is also referred to as the get nowhere position and is accompanied by feelings of confusion or aimlessness and pointlessness. Their attitude is ‘Why bother, what’s the point?’ and they frequently waste time. They do nothing very much in life, and in extreme cases become alcoholics or drug addicts, or go crazy, possibly committing murder or suicide. Reference E.Berne, Games People Play, Grove Press Inc., 1964; Penguin, 1968. Barker D, TA and Training, Gower Publishing Company Ltd., 1982. COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATIONS Organizations, large and small, commercial and not-for-profit, religious and educational – are all structured to facilitate the achievement of objectives. The communication process in an organization connects superiors, subordinates, members of the peer group and the external environment. The top man’s job is almost solely communication as he has the main task of linking and relating the organization with the environment. In the absence of communication, human beings will have to exist as individuals never benefiting from the sharing of emotions, experiences, knowledge etc. Without communication, which has undisputed primary in the affairs of human race, man will not be able to unit to overcome limitations and ensure achievements. Communication involves the transfer or rather exchange of ideas, information, understanding, feelings, emotions etc. between individuals. It can be defined as “who says what and why to whom through which channel with what effect”. Though this is a reasonably comprehensive definition of communication, it is a process oriented one. It should be stated in this context that the concept of communication is common understanding between the involved parties – whom we shall refer to as the Sender and Receiver – about what is being communicated which we shall term as Message. “Message” may denote anything ranging from ideas to data to statistics to emotions and feelings. The Importance of Communication Studies have been conducted on the amount of time spent on communication by people from different walks of life. It is found that the group that has to spend least time for the process of communication is the shop floor level workers in manufacturing organizations. Even in their case, 40 to 60% of time is spent on communication. As a person’s position in the organizational echelon is higher and higher, the time required to be spent on communication is more and more. The head of any organization may be expected to spend more than 80% of his/her time on some form of communication or the other. What this means is that how effectively, efficiently, creatively and productively that person communicates will decide his overall effectiveness, efficiency, creativity and productivity to a corresponding extent. The communication process in any organization is so vital for the achievement of its objectives. How a communication system is managed in an organization ie., how effective it is, has a profound impact on the ultimate effectiveness of the total organization. Numerous studies have confirmed the impact of communication, organizational productivity, efficiency and effectiveness. In one such study, the reasons for wide variations in productivity among twenty seven branches of a package – delivery organization, were explored. As part of the study communication data were collected from the 975 employees from the branches. Comparison of productivity and communication data revealed positive correlation between high performance and open communication between superiors and subordinates. In a survey conducted among nearly a hundred business organizations with the objective of determining how much of top management has to say is actually understood, the following facts were revealed. 1. At the vice presidential level managers understand about two thirds of what they hear from the top 2. At the general supervisor level managers understand 56 per cent of the top level information. 3. At the manager level managers perceive only 40 per cent. 4. Foremen perceive 30 per cent 5. Persons on the production line understand 20 per cent The above findings throw light on the need and potential for management for improving communication skills. The ABCs of Communication Like any other process, communication also has its ABCs and it is interesting to note that the ABCs of communication are: A - Attractiveness B - Brevity C - Clarity The Process of Communication Whatever is being communicated is called ‘Message’. The person from whom the message originates – the one who initiates the process of communication – is called the Sender. The person for whom the communication is meant is called the Receiver. Communication cannot take place in a vaccum. It has to have a medium or channel. After receiving the message the ‘Receiver’ will react or respond to the sender when provision for that exists. This part of the communication process may be termed Feedback. When there is no provision for ‘Receiver to Sender Feedback’, it may be called one-way communication. This, in most cases, may increase the distortion between the intended message and the one that is received. There are various barriers to effective communication which may affect the process at any stage and they can be collectively designated by the term ‘NOISE’. The following model will illustrate the process of communication. NOISE NOISE NOISE FEEDBACK NOISE Communication Categories Based on the presence or absence of two important attributes of communication viz., effectiveness and impressiveness, all communication can be grouped in to one of the following categories: SENDER MESSAGE MEDIUM RECEIVER - Effective and Impressive - Effective but Unimpressive - Ineffective but Impressive - Ineffective and Unimpressive Needless to mention, the best of the above lot is the first category and the last one is the worst. It should be one’s aim to make his/her communication effective and attribute each is present while the other is lacking. If a choice is to be made between the second and third categories, definitely the preference must be for the second one. In other words, if we have to prioritize, effectiveness has primacy. Barriers to Effective Organizational Communication There are many barriers that can impede the process of communication resulting in a communication breakdown. Some of the common barriers to effective communication are described below. However, it should be remembered that the list is not exhaustive. (i) Transmission Alterations: This refers to the changes that the original message undergoes when it passes through various people. The greater the differences between the people involved with respect to various factors like cultural background, social class, educational level, age group, experience etc. the greater will be the alterations that the message undergoes. One effective way to overcome the barrier – or at least reduce its ill effects – would be to ask the receiver to repeat what he/she has understood. This will provide the sender with an opportunity make corrections to the perceived message if found necessary. When one has the role of the receiver and if the sender is not making any effort on the lines suggested above, the receiver may take the initiative for making the required clarification. (ii) Physical Limitations: The difference between perception and reality may be termed perceptual error. Our sensory limitations – those of sight, sound, touch, taste and smell-restrict perceptual clarity. (iii) Inattention: This is related to the receiver, care should be taken to give proper attention to the message. When in sender’s role, one should start communicating only after ensuring required level of attention on the part of the receivers. Despite physical proximity with the sender, the receiver’s level of attention may come down or his/her thoughts may take side excursions while the sender is talking. The sender should recognize this as a natural and normal phenomenon and make efforts to regain receivers’ attention at periodic intervals. (iv) Selective Listening: When receivers tend to “block out” information, especially when it is contradictory to what one believes, it results in selective perception. It is a common practice for people to ignore or distort information that conflicts with ones prescribed notions. (v) Mistrust of the Source: Over a period of time, we develop various levels of trust, confidence or faith in the words of the sender. It may be termed source credibility. To be an effective communicator, one should develop himself/herself as a credible source of information. Inc.2000